Effect Of Different Noise Reduction Health And Social Care Essay

Abstract-The intent of this paper is to measure the consequence of different noise decrease filters on computed imaging ( CT ) images. In peculiar, denoising filters based on the combination of Gaussian and Prewitt operators and on anisotropic diffusion are proposed. Simulation consequences show that the proposed techniques increase the image quality and let the usage of a low-dose CT protocol.Index Terms-Computed imaging ( CT ) , denoising filters, image quality, radiation dosageComputed imaging ( CT ) is a wireless in writing review method that generates a 3-D image of the interior of an object from a big series of 2-D images taken on a cross-sectional plane of the same object. In most clinical conditions, CT has been necessary in adjunction to conventional skiagraphy. By and large talking, conventional radiogram depict a 3-D object as a 2-D image, produced by an X-ray tubing, which rotates around the organic structure of the stationary patient. of Hounsfield graduated tables that represents the country of involvement. The available grey graduated table is spread over the chosen scope. For this purpose, two parametric quantities are defined, i.e. , windowing breadth, which defines the difference between the upper and lower bounds of the selected scope, and windowing centre, which represents the centre of the window. After a cross-sectional image is acquired, the patient is advanced through the gauntry into the following stationary place, and so the following image is acquired. Improvement in tubing engineering, computing machine, and hardware public presentations has led to an development of CT scanners, cut downing the acquisition scan times and bettering the declaration. A first development of the traditional CT scanner is the coiling ( or helical ) scanner [ 1 ] . It is based on the uninterrupted patient gesture through the gauntry combined with the interrupted tubing rotary motion. The name of this scanner engineering derives from the coiling way traced o ut by the X-ray beam. The major advantages of coiling scanning compared with the traditional attack consist of its improved velocity and spacial declaration. To farther cut down the scan clip, the multislice CT scanner has been developed [ 2 ] . This system uses multiple rows of sensors. This manner, the throughput of the patient is well increased. However, multislice scanners generate an increased sum of informations compared with the single-slice scanner, and practically, the throughput of patients is limited by the clip taken to retrace the acquired informations. In add-on, diagnostic CT imaging involves a trade-off between the image quality and the radiation dosage ; hence, the decrease of the CT image noise is important to cut down the acquisition clip without deteriorating the contrast and the signal-to noise ratio. The visual image of the anatomic constructions by agencies of CT is affected by two effects, viz. , blurring, which reduces the visibleness of little object, and n oise, which reduces the visibleness of low-contrast objects. During scanning, the sum of blurring is determined by the focal topographic point size and the sensor size, whereas at the clip of image Reconstruction procedure, blurring is due to the voxel size and the type of applied filter. Another common process to scan the whole organic structure, giving 3-D images, is magnetic resonance imagination ( MRI ) , which is based on magnetic belongingss of the H content of tissues. The MRI scanner is a tubing surrounded by a elephantine round magnet. The patient is placed on a movable bed that is inserted into the strong magnet, which forces H atoms in the patient ‘s organic structure to aline in the magnetic field way. When wireless moving ridges are applied, they perturb the magnetisation equilibrium by tipping the magnetisation in different waies. As the RF moving ridges turn off, the H atoms lose energy breathing their ain RF signals. Different types of tissues generate differen t signals. The collected informations are reconstructed into a 2-D array. MRI is a noninvasive scrutiny because the patients are non exposed to the radiation dosage, MRI is good suited for soft tissues. MRI is more expensive than CT. II. RADIATION DOSE AND IMAGE QUALITY CT histories for 47 % of whole medical radiation, although it represents merely 7 % of entire radiology scrutinies. Hence, the development of techniques for cut downing the radiation dosage becomes indispensable, peculiarly in paediatric applications [ 3 ] . In conventional skiagraphy imagination, it is normally clear when overexposure has taken topographic point. This is non true in CT, because the sum of radiation adsorbed by the patient depends on many proficient parametric quantities, which can automatically be controlled by CT scanners to equilibrate the high image quality and the exposure dosage. Then, it is possible that the differences between an equal image and a high-quality image ( obtained with higher exposure ) are non so instantly apparent. Unfortunately, as the radiation additions, the associated hazard of malignant neoplastic disease is increased, although this is highly little. To adhere the image quality to the radiation dosage, a batch of dose forms were developed. The Computed Tomography Dose Index, along with its discrepancies, includes a set of standard parametric quantities used to depict CT-associated dosage. It is defined as the integral of the dose distribution profile ( measured along a line analogue to the axis of rotary motion of the lamp ) divided by the nominal piece thickness. Many proficient factors contribute to the strength dosage in CT. In sequence, the chief CT parametric quantities and their deductions in the diagnostic quality of the CT tests are investigated. 1 ) Tube current ( in factory amperes ) and gantry rotary motion clip: These parametric quantities are straight relative to the radiation dosage. Their merchandise ( in mAs ) affects the figure of photons emitted by the X-ray beam, and it is responsible for the radiation exposure. Furthermore, an addition in mill amperes produces warming of the anode of the X-ray tubing. 2 ) Tube electromotive force extremum ( kVp ) : It is relative to square root of the dosage. This parametric quantity controls the speed at which the negatrons collide with the anode, and it straight affects X-ray incursion. Furthermore, by utilizing high values of kVp, it is possible to cut down the difference in tissue densenesss, and this can degrade the image contrast. 3 ) Pitch: It is defined as the ratio of the table distance traveled in one 360a- ¦ rotary motion and the entire collimated breadth of the X-ray beam. A rise in pitch produces a decrease of the radiation dosage but, at the same clip, decreases both the piece sensitiveness and the z-axis declaration. Many CT empirical protocols to set scan scenes have been proposed [ 5 ] . Generally, in CT scrutinies, a high radiation dosage consequences in high-quality images. A lower dose leads to the addition in image noise and consequences in un crisp images. This is more critical in low-contrast soft-tissue imagination like abdominal or liver CT. The relationship between the image quality and the dosage in CT is comparatively complex, affecting the interplay of a figure of factors, including noise, axial and longitudinal declarations, and piece width [ 6 ] . Depending on the diagnostic undertaking, these factors interact to find image sensitiveness ( i.e. , the ability to comprehend low-contras t constructions ) and visibleness of inside informations III. CT IMAGE NOISE CT images are per se noisy, and this poses important challenges for image reading, peculiarly in the context of low-dose and high-throughput informations analysis. CT noise affects the visibleness of low-contrast objects. By utilizing well-engineered CT scanners, it is sensible to pretermit the electronic noise caused by electronic devices [ 7 ] . Then, in the CT image, the primary subscriber to the entire noise is the quantum noise, which represents the random fluctuation in the fading coefficients of the single tissue voxels [ 8 ] . In fact, it is possible that two voxels of the same tissue produce different CT values. A possible attack to cut down the noise is the usage of big voxels, which absorb a batch of photons, guaranting a more accurate measuring of the fading coefficients. In this paper, some image filters to cut down the noise part were proposed. In a first measure, the statistical belongingss of image noise in CT tests were investigated. As evident in the literature, noi se mold and the manner to cut down it are common jobs in most imaging applications. In many image processing applications, a suited denoising stage is frequently required before any relevant information could be extracted from analyzed images. This is peculiarly necessary when few images are available for analysis. A batch of surveies have proved the Gaussianity of the pixel image generated by CT scanners [ 9 ] – [ 10 ] . This consequence permits us to set up the stochastic image theoretical account and to carry on a statistical image analysis of CT images IV. MATERIALS AND METHODS In this paper, 20 high-dose thorax CT images supplied by the Radiologist staff of â€Å" G. Moscati † Taranto Hospital have been examined. In peculiar, our attending was pointed to chest scrutinies due to high frequence by radiotherapists look intoing chest pathology, every bit good as the good handiness of this type of images. In fact, in the thorax, CT is by and large better than medical imaging analysis such as MRI for the hollow entrails. Furthermore, lung is the lone organ whose vass can be traced without utilizing contrast media, and this simplifies the image amplification. All images ( 512 A- 512 pels ) were in Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine format, which represents the criterion in radiology and cardiology imagination industry for informations exchange and image-related information. This standard groups information into information sets, including of import features such as image size and format, acquisition parametric quantities, equipment description, and patient information [ 16 ] . The examined images were acquired by agencies of a coiling CT scanner with the undermentioned acquisition puting: the tubing electromotive force extremum is 120 kVp, the tubing current is 375 ma, and the piece thickness is 7.5 millimeter. Image visual image was performed by utilizing the criterion windowing parametric quantities for thorax CT, i.e. , windowing centre of 30 HU and windowing breadth of 350 HU. Each image was corrupted by linear zero-mean white Gaussian noise to imitate a low-dose CT image. To this purpose, we have simulated the decrease in the tubing current degree by following an sum of noise in understanding with the consequences of old surveies about simulation of dose decrease in CT scrutinies [ 11 ] . To be more precise, we have used a degree noise ( standard divergence = 25 HU ) that about simulates the lowest tubing current degree ( 40 ma ) adopted in CT analysis. This value corresponds to the current degree recommended for paediatric thorax CT scrutinies [ 12 ] . Fig. 1 shows an illustration of an original high-dose thorax image. ] . To cut down the noise consequence, different low-pass filters have mostly been used in medical image analysis, but they have the disadvantage to present film overing borders. In fact, all smoothing filters, while smoothing out the noise, besides take high frequence border characteristics by degrading the localisation and the contrast. Therefore, it is necessary to equilibrate the tradeoff among Fig. 1Original CT image obtained with a high dosage of radiation. noise suppression, image deblurring, and edge sensing. To this purpose, a low-pass filter combined with an border sensor operator was proposed. In peculiar, Gaussian, averaging, and unsharp filters were tested to smooth the noise, whereas Prewitt and Sobel operators were used for border designation. The experimental consequences showed that the combination of Gaussian and Prewitt offers best public presentations. Successively, a nonlinear denoising technique has been tested, and its public presentations have been compared with the Gaussian-Prewitt filtering technique. Anisotropic diffusion is a selective and nonlinear filtering technique that improves image quality, taking the noise while continuing and even heightening inside informations. The anisotropic diffusion procedure employs the diffusion coefficients to find the sum of smoothing that should be applied to each pel of the image. The diffusion procedure is based on an iterative method, and it is described by agencies of the un dermentioned diffusion equation where Iti, J is the strength of the pel at place I, J and at the tth loop ; cN, cesium, cerium, and cW are the diffusion coefficients in the four waies ( north, south, east, and west ) ; parametersa?†¡NI, a?†¡SI, a?†¡EI, and a? »a?†¡WI are the nearest-neighbor differences of strength in the four waies ; and I » represents a coefficient that assures the stableness of the theoretical account, runing in the interval [ 0-0.25 ] . The initial status ( t = 0 ) of the diffusion equation is the strength pels of the original image. The diffusion coefficients are updated at every loop as a map of strength gradient. Normally, the two following maps were used for coefficient computation [ 21 ] : ( 2 ) where K is a control parametric quantity. The first map favours high-contrast borders over low contrast borders, whereas the 2nd emphasizes broad countries over smaller countries. A proper pick of the diffusion map non merely preserves but besides enhances the borders. This map monotonically decreases with the addition in gradient strength a?†¡I. The control parametric quantity should be chosen to bring forth maximal smoothing, where noise is supposed to be present at that place forward, it is possible to cipher K to happen the maximal value of diffusion flow ( hundred a? » a?†¡I ) and take it to be equal to the noise degree. This manner, the undermentioned K values are obtained for two diffusion maps ( 2 ) [ 23 ] : ( 3 ) where I?n is the standard divergence of the noise calculated in the noisy image background. The appraisal of the noise degree in a corrupted image is usually based on the computation of the standard divergence of the pels in the homogenous zone ( e.g. , background ) . For this ground, the pel indexes of the original image background, matching to the zones where there is no signal ( Ii, ,j = 0 ) , have been calculated. Then, these indexes are used to cipher the standard divergence in the noisy image. In the first estimate, we have supposed that the noise criterion divergence is changeless throughout the image. Therefore, to take into history the non stationarity of noise, we have calculated the K value as a map of local noise features. The noise is assumed to be statistically independent of the original image. We consider the differences in strength in the four waies, i.e. , ( 4 ) It is good known that the noise discrepancy of the amount of two independent noisy signals is the amount of the noise discrepancies of the two constituents. Therefore, it can easy be shown that the discrepancy of the noise is non affected by the operations in ( 4 ) , because the noise is assumed to be a white signal, i.e. , different pels are non correlated. Then, the noise discrepancies of I, DN, DS, DE, andDW are the same. To gauge the local noise criterion divergence, we consider a sub image of size M ( M = 2m + 1 ) , where the undermentioned relationship is applied: ( 5 ) It is possible to observe that the local mean I?D, I, ,j is taken into history. In fact, even if the planetary noise mean is zero, locally, the mean is normally nonzero. The estimated local criterion divergence is replaced in ( 3 ) , obtaining four K values for each diffusion map. The diffusion equation does non take into history the border waies. In fact, they are considered ever vertically or horizontally displayed. It is possible to better the public presentation of the diffusion filter by increasing the action of the filter on the waies parallel to the border and diminishing the filtrating action on perpendicular waies. To this purpose, is modified by adding new footings depending on the border way [ 12 ] , A suited mask of size N is used to pull out a sub image, and the upper limit of the strength gradient is calculated to happen the border way. The size N depends on the image belongingss. If N is excessively little, the figure of mask pels is non sufficient to verify if an border issues and to cipher its orientation. If N is excessively big, it is possible to pull out a sub array incorporating more than one border orientation ; in this instance, the computation of the maximal strength gradient produces wrong consequences. V. RESULTS To measure the consequence of noise add-on on the original images, the comparative RMS mistake eRMS was calculated as follows: ( 7 ) Fig 5 ( a ) loop 0 image where Io is the original high-dose image, I is the original image corrupted by Gaussian noise, and R and C are the row and column Numberss, severally. Experimental consequences have shown that this parametric quantity is, on Fig 5 ( B ) Iteration 1 image Fig 5 ( degree Celsius ) Iteration 2image Fig 5 ( vitamin D ) enhanced image loop mean, approximately 13 % .Successively, ( 7 ) was used to cipher the noise decrease obtained by using the proposed filtering techniques on the corrupted image. In this instance, in ( 7 ) , I represents the filtered noisy image. In a first measure, the filter obtained by uniting Gaussian and Prewitt filters was tested. This technique allows diminishing the mean comparative mistake to 10 % . Successively, the anisotropic filter was tested. Several simulations have been used to put up the filter parametric quantities. In peculiar, a first set of trials has been carried out to compare the public presentations of the filter obtained by ciphering the diffusion coefficients by agencies of the two maps ( 2 ) . The trial consequences show that the 2nd map produces somewhat better public presentations in footings of comparative RMS mistake. Probably, this is due to the belongingss of chest CT images, where the big parts are prevailing with regard to the countries with high contrast borders. Further simulations have been performed to place the figure of loops for the diffusion procedure. Fig. 5 ( a-c ) shows the average values of comparative RMS mistakes obtained in all filtering image trials versus the loop figure. It is possible to observe that, for an loop figure less than 4, eRMS monotonically decreases ; otherwise, eRMS monotonically grows. Therefore, three loops have been used in the filtering trials. Furthermore, several simulations have been performed to find the size of the two masks used to gauge the local noise criterion divergence and border waies, severally. The analysis of trial consequences has led to take a size M = N = 7 for both masks. Finally, the public presentations of the Gaussian-Prewitt and anisotropic filters have been compared. The experimental consequences highlight that, utilizing the anisotropic filter, it is possible to diminish eRMS to about 6 % . Fig. 5. ( vitamin D ) shows an illustration of the public presentation of anisotropic filtering and of filtrating obtained by uniting Gauss and Prewitt operators applied on a noisy image VI. Decision In this paper, an analysis of denoising techniques applied to CT images has been presented with the purpose of increasing the dependability of CT scrutinies obtained with low-dose radiation. First, the chief proficient parametric quantities act uponing the radiation dosage and their deductions for diagnostic quality were investigated. Successively, the chief causes of CT noise and its statistical belongingss were analyzed. Finally, some image filters to cut down the noise part were proposed. In peculiar, a combination of Gaussian and Prewitt filters was ab initio tested, obtaining a RMS of 10 % . Successively, a filtering technique based on anisotropic diffusion was applied. Several simulations have been carried out to take the best filter parametric quantities. This manner, it has been possible to diminish the comparative mistake to about 6 % .

Compare Explanations for Relationship Breakdown Given

Compare explanations for relationship breakdown given by exchange theory and equity theory. Which do you consider to be the most convincing and why? What does Duck’s theory add to the explanation? The Exchange Theory which was put forward by Homans in 1971 suggests that when we are in a relationship, we keep an eye on what we are putting in and getting out of a relationship. It argues that whether ir not we are satisfied depends on the ratio of rewards and costs that are given within the relationship.If the person involved feels as though, for them, the rewards outweigh the costs, they will most likely feel satisfied with the relationship as they do not need to give as much, however, if the person involved feels like the costs outweighs the rewards, they will become dissatisfied with the relationship and this will result in them becoming likely to look elsewhere for ‘better offer’ and the previous relationship will breakdown.On the other hand, Equity Theory which was developed by Walster in 1978, does not argue that if the rewards outweigh the costs the person will be happy, but that when in a relationship, the people involved expect the relationship to be fair. Where Exchange Theory would say that people would leave a relationship as it is if they felt they were in the advantaged position where rewards are concerned, Equity theory says that the person would look to restore the equity within the relationship by either reducing their input or increasing their outputs.If this does not appear to work, it is likely that the relationship will breakdown as an equilibrium has not been reached. I think that the Equity Theory is a more convincing approach to the breakdown on relationships as most people in the 21st century, are more likely to try and ‘work it out’ if the relationship appeared to be in turmoil.It is true that if someone feels like they aren’t getting enough out of the relationship, then the relationship is more lik ely to break down, but this the Exchange Theory suggests that the relationship will breakdown straight away which is not true to reality as it is likely that the couple would discuss things before a decision is made on the future of the relationship. This is outlined in Duck’s theory. Also, the Exchange Theory suggests that humans are selfish as the theory seems to say that humans are fixated on getting the rewards from a relationship.In 1988, Duck demonstrated how a relationship should typically end. In order to do this, he developed a four stage model of dissolution. Stage one, the Intra-psychic phase, states that at least one member of the couple will start to feel unhappy and will start to focus on the behaviour of their partners. They will eventually reach the threshold and will voice their concerns. The second stage, the dyadic phase, states that the couple will take part in discussions and some may go to counselling; others may r ach the next threshold.This is the thir d stage, the social phase, where friends may offer support or take sides. It is this stage, according to Duck, where a break up is inevitable. The final stage is the grave dressing phase. This is when both people involved put across their opinion of what happened during the breakup and each partner will create their own version of who was to blame in the situation. It is normally a face saving situation. This approach address issues that the other approaches, the Exchange Theory especially, ignores.Duck’s approach addresses that couples are likely to take part in discussions about the relationship and where they think it is heading. The theory shows the different stages that should be considered when going through a break up however, ‘considered’ is the operative word. The theory suggests that these stages happen in all break ups however this is not the case for all situations. Although the stages should be considered, it is likely that some couples may get stuck in a stage or even miss one out meaning that it does not follow the approach to every letter.

Leadership is a process of energy, not structure. in this Essay

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United States v. Leon, 468 U.S. 897 Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

United States v. Leon, 468 U.S. 897 - Case Study Example y afforded to law enforcement officers, and on the other a deviation from well-established rule against illegal searches and seizures diminishing a commonly accepted constitutional right. Cruikshank (1986) thus ascertains that â€Å"The inquiry no longer is whether the fourth amendment was violated but whether the deterrent effect of the exclusionary rule outweighs the potential cost of losing valuable evidence† (p. 417). There is now a shift from individual rights to the duties of police officers in establishing the correct application of the Constitution as determined by the judiciary. This is a far cry from the basic premise of any constitution as the fundamental law of the land. It must serve as a limitation on the powers of government and a reminder of the supremacy of the people. The inclusion of probable cause in the criterion for the issuance of a warrant was a definitive statement as to the powers that may be accorded in the proper disturbance of a person in his rights. The defense of good faith seems as an easy enough loophole to violate what I ardently believed to be a constitutional right despite how the Supreme Court ruled otherwise. Cruikshank, C. (1986). Dismantling the exclusionary rule: United States v. Leon and the courts of Washington-should good faith excuse bad acts? University of Puget Sound Law Review, 9. Retrieved from

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How Mentoring Supports Essay Example for Free

How Mentoring Supports Essay Mentoring is probably as old as humanity. Though we cannot exactly trace its beginnings, we can however, see its effects on different prominent personalities in our histories and in both our fiction and non-fiction stories. It is said that behind every wise and great man is a mentor that share with him the basic knowledge and information during his formative years which eventually flourish in to a deeply rooted wisdom and intelligence. Thus, on this premise, we can say that mentoring plays a crucial and very important role in our lives but what really is mentoring? Mentoring is when a role model or a mentor who has more knowledge and experience offers support to another person who is called the mentee or the protege (McBrien, J. L. , Brandt, R. S. 1997: 64). It is a process which supports learning and development of another person; more specifically it is a one on one meeting to support the learner in their desire to improve their personal situation in life (Marslow P. , Wray M. 2000: 81-82). Scholarly interest on the role of mentoring in adult development is often traced to Levinson’s seminal study of human development which he found to be dominantly affected or influenced greatly by mentors. A mentor therefore is often described as a guide, a counselor and developer of skills who facilitates the realization of a dream, of a vision that one has of the sort of life he wants (Allen, T. ,Eby, L. T 2007: 8-10). A successful mentor however, is not made overnight, just like any beginners, a mentor also, once in his life, also becomes a mentee or the protege. A common example of this is a novice teacher. There’s a common notion that teachers are always the mentors, always the one who counsel, always the one who guide another person, but a closer look into reality will let us know that teachers themselves in educational institutions needs also to be mentored in order to be effective and even survived their profession. It is often said that student achievement and the effectiveness of a school in training students is linked to the quality of teachers that such educational institutions employ. Thus, guidance and development through mentoring finds its ways as a very important tool in developing educators especially the beginning or novice teachers. Mentoring movement for beginning teachers are said to be guided with two school of thoughts, to wit: the first one is the idea that beginning teachers are at risk in terms of their career and personal development in the profession. Thus, unless timely support is provided, many beginning teachers will face difficulty in settling down, becoming disenchanted and some may even leave teaching altogether (Ginns, et al. 2001). The second school of thought pertains to the ongoing capacity building as an important feature of any learning community where a continuous reflection-in-action, performance feedback and improvement should form an integral protocol for all teachers as professionals (DET Induction of Teachers 2001). This school of thoughts may indeed differ in their principles and idea but it has one similar aim, that is, to support the beginning or the novice teachers in their profession as educators. To be more particular on how mentoring can support the professional learning of the teachers, it is proper to discuss all aspects which mentoring can have a great effect, to wit: the personal development, emotional and psychological development, social development and career development. Mentoring can greatly effect the personal development of a beginning teacher inasmuch as the mentor will make the beginning teachers build his or her principles in the profession as well as his beliefs, capabilities and aspiration. Mentoring encourage development of self-awareness by showing how self assessment can help in his or her personal development. A novice teacher will often feel lost in his or her first year in the profession, thus making the novice teacher feel uneasy in showing and expressing his beliefs, his ideas or if his abilities will match the requirements of the teaching profession. This kind of doubting behavior as to himself and as to his principles and beliefs will more often than not lead to a shallow and empty dark hall of self doubt which of course will not help the beginning teacher to grow and be developed. Here is where mentoring should come in. In this stage, a mentor through his advice, company and simply his listening skills will make the novice teacher to develop self-confirmation and self-confidence as well as his confidence to express and stand on his or her beliefs. It is worthy taking note to that saying that the higher level of confidence, awareness and self-esteem will more often results to a higher learner’s motivation to seize learning opportunities and to take responsibilities for improving their levels of excellence and performance. In terms of emotional and psychological development, mentoring can help the beginning teachers adapt and adjust their feelings and attitude towards his or her new environment. Beside the new environment that confronts the novice teacher, the everyday dilemma and uncertainties will surely frustrate any beginning teachers. With the limited experience and practical knowledge to drag on, the novice teacher often feels uncertain and at the same time overwhelmed. Clearly, providing support to beginning teachers is better than letting them sink or swim on their own. Studies of teacher attrition show that without support, new teachers will more likely to leave teaching. Mentoring in answering this type of problem associated with the psychological and emotional being of the novice teacher will play a â€Å"form of therapeutic guidance† (Scherer : pp. 4-8). Mentoring the novice teacher through giving on-the spot advices on times which they are considered vulnerable will amounts to a good counseling where the mentor addresses issues like stress, everyday workplace dilemma and even frustrations that may build along the way. Battling these emotional and psychological struggles through support from a mentor is very important in the formative years of the beginning teachers as this will help decide the latter from deciding whether to stick in the profession or just leave it altogether. Mentoring also contributes to the social development of the beginning teachers. Beginning teachers often find themselves alone in the new environment and if state like this continuous to go on in the whole career of the novice teacher, more often than not, the said teacher will find himself withdrawn in the society. Thus, mentoring will help the novice teacher develops his inter-personal skills. Building rapport and friendship are considered important traits of an educator as he is constantly reaching and interacting either with his students and even his or her co-teachers. Mentoring therefore will promote friendship between the beginning teacher and the mentor and subsequently to the whole faculty where he or she can interact and exchange ideas with his colleagues. In the book authored by Stephen Gordon, How to help Beginning Teachers Succeed, it was said that the most significant force in their experience was the peer and support of their mentor. The said peer or support was typically rated as highly influential early in the formative years and increasingly influential as the years progressed (20-21). Thus, the support rendered in during the formative years of the beginning teacher is the most important factor in the development of the career of the novice teacher as this instilled support will always served as a post or a mark in their road to professional growth. Laslty, mentoring is a tool in the development of the novice teacher’s career. It is settled that mentoring involves a relationship between a less experience individual or the protege and the more experience person or the mentor where the primary purpose is the professional growth and development of the protege. Considering that the main purpose of mentoring is for growth and development, it will therefore be a tool which will prepare the novice teacher for career advancement. It is for this reason that mentoring is often referred to as the indoctrination of the novice teacher in the professional field of teaching and this relationship, in itself can have profound effects of these beginning teachers to have a clear and realistic picture of his or her professional identity and career plans. Because mentors are often more experienced in the field of teaching and thus, equipped with more knowledge and wisdom, mentoring can therefore be an effective tool in the transmission of distilled wisdom from one generation to another (Bhindi 2003) After all, it is said that great learning and wisdom are not always written in the text books, first hand experience and theories that have been tested by the mentors are the greatest learning that a beginning teacher will have in his or her professional career. Mentoring therefore may be considered as interactive cycle of learning, affirming, renewing, creating and transforming knowledge experience and expertise. It is now settled that a novice teacher needs mentoring in their formative years of their career. The contributions and effects of mentoring not only shows advantages that can be present in the short span of time but rather, mentoring is showing more advantages that can be seen for an even longer period of time. It is during this mentoring stage where the novice teacher determines his capacities, his knowledge and abilities which he will now pass to the younger generation through his teaching profession. As earlier stated, the quality of education is determined to the quality of teachers an educational institution employs, thus, mentoring therefore should not be taken for granted or taken lightly because it is through proper mentoring that will determine the quality of education our future children will have. List of References Bindhi, N. 2003 Study Guide EDGL 919 Mentoring Beginning Teachers, University of Wallongong. Ginns, I. , Heirdsfield, A. Atneh, B. and Waters J. J 2001 Beginning Teachers Becoming Professional Tthrough ActionResearch, Educational Action Research, Volume 9. Gordon, S. How to help Beginning Teachers Succeed, Second Edition, pp. 20-21. NWS Department of Education and Training (DET) 2001 Induction of Teachers – Module 21: Working as a Mentor. McBrien, J. L. , Brandt, R. S. 1997 The Language of Learning: A Guide to Education Terms, Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, p. 64. Parslow P. , Wray, M. 2000 Coaching and Mentoring, Kogan Page, pp. 81-82. Scherer, M. 1999 A Better Beginning: Supporting and Mentoring New Teachers ACSD, p. 4-8.

Consider the View That Only Form Matters When Properly Appreciating Art Essay Example for Free

Consider the View That Only Form Matters When Properly Appreciating Art Essay Art appreciation is the understanding of the timeless qualities that characterise all great art, and personally i feel is a subjective matter; what I find aesthetically pleasing may not apply to everyone else. There are many reasons why we value art; because it informs us, because of its expressive quality, and because of its artistic quality. In this case, the latter is being discussed, that good art is good because of aesthetic enjoyment of form, the balance and structure and proportion. Its argued that content is not important, just the formal qualities make it good art, for example Jackson Pollock, his work is based on lines and colours and is valued very highly, therefore content is irellevant. However the view that art should be valued for its expressive qualities or catharsis as Aristotle called it; the emotional purging and cleansing. He believed people watched tragedies to make themselves emotional and upset but in a way happy, as they then have purged any negative emotion they had. If art was merely something that caused emotion it would be trivial, but the fact that art can convey something that is transcendent lies its value. However the argument that forms matters shows us that anything can trigger emotions such as pity or fear, without having to be art, but formal qualities are unique. Many people value art becuase it can inform us, we value it if it is true to nature or to life. Platos imitation theory applies here, that all artists are merely copying the form so it can not be good art, but all perceptual experience involves interpretation, so there is nothing to copy. Great historical paintings can give us visual knowledge of certain points in time, but limitations with this is that anything can inform us without being art, a book can inform us but isnt art. This ability to inform us is not what make sus appreciate it but the artistic qualities it holds; the forms, is what makes us appreciate it. But then there is the argument that form is not enough, by itself, to keep the auidence captured as beauty alone is not enough. That there has to be content to appreciate it such as a meaning, a story behind it, form lacks this ability. I personally believe that when appreciating art, form does matter. It makes a piece of art unique but i also belive that it solely matters, i appreciate its informative qualities and its expressive ones, so a good piece of artwork for me, should contain all three qualities.

Reviewing the American Constitution

Reviewing the American Constitution Ignacio J. Blanco Eminent Domain The development and freedom of a society and its individuals depend to a large extent on the content and protection of property rights. In practically all the legal systems the indemnification to the individuals is consecrated in the event that the State deprives them of their property through an act of expropriation. Being one of the first to recognize such a guarantee, the Fifth Amendment of the United States Constitution prohibits the State from expropriating property for public use, without payment of fair compensation to its owner. The application of such requirement is relatively easy to enforce when the government formally exercises deprivation of property to a private individual, especially when dealing with real estate. The question in this matter is: when should a particular sector of the population bear the cost of a regulation whose benefits are taken advantage by society as a whole? In outlining the concept of eminent domain regulation, a convenient point of departure tu rns out to be the examination of the next argument: the right of the State to exercise eminent domain. When the government needs a certain private property for public use, it should clearly state its intention assessing the specific property, and then paying the former owner a fair compensation. Usually, the main issue in the governments use of eminent domain is what constitutes fair compensation. Eminent domain is defined as: the power that the government has to expropriate a private land for public use (U.S Fifth Amendment). This power is limited by the Federal Constitution as well as State Constitutions when the government takes a private property for common use, it must properly indemnify the owner for the alienation (U.S. Fifth Amendment). Sometimes the exercise of eminent domain consists of a simple process, in which the government grants the owner a fair price and this will result in the appropriation of the property for common use. On other occasions, the government and the owner may disagree as to whether an expropriation needs to occur and what the amount of compensation should be. In these types of cases a legal procedure will be necessary to certify the legitimacy of the expropriation and establish a fair price for the property. The Fifth Amendment expropriation clause protects the owner and assures that he or she will receive appropriate compensation. This clause has three significant components: the first component states that eminent domain should only be applied to private property. Due to this fact, if the government decides to modify the purpose of some public land, for example, to build an office building or a homeless shelter in what used to be a public park, this action will not require government to compensate citizens who used the park. The second requirement is that the land should only be expropriated for common use. This limitation prevents government officials from taking private property for personal use. In this case, this requirement will protect citizens from government officials that might try to get any personal gains from taking private property. Lastly, The Fifth Amendment requires fair compensation. Usually, fair compensation is determined by the market value of the property, in other words. the price at which the owner could have expected to sell the property. It is important to know that the value of the property should be set considering many factors. These factors include: the size of the land and the buildings, the location of the property, the access to utilities and public services, resources present on the property, etc. When a permanent expropriation is about to take place, the courts will use different methods to determine market value. However, if the government needs the property for a limited time, the calculation of value will be more complicated. In cases of eminent domain, the government states that it needs certain private property to create a public benefit, such as the construction of a new stadium or public park. The government can offer the owner a price that is acceptable to the individual or the individual can initiate an expropriation procedure. This procedure is similar to a lawsuit and it is started by the owner of the property when they do not reach agreement. The owner of the property has the right to be notified of the decision of the government and can submit a reply. As one can see, the Fifth Amendment offers protection to the owner and guarantees that he or she will receive a fair compensation for the expropriation. In some non-usual cases the government will deny the claim that they have taken property from the owner. Therefore, the owner would have to initiate an action, denominated procedure of compensation by expropriation, to demand compensation from the government. This situation might occur in various ways. For example, the government may adopt behavior that destroys the owners ability to use and enjoy his or her land, such as building a rail road along the owners property. As one can see, this action does not involve an expropriation, but will certainly reduce the value of the property, forcing the owner to file a lawsuit to obtain compensation. The necessity to determine the time at which the expropriation occurred is important in the matter of eminent domain. An argument may arise when the government presents a plan that affects the property of a citizen. In other words, when the government makes a public announcement about the possibility of starting a new infrastructure project this could potentially impact the value of private property. Furthermore, the owner might think that this plan will already constitute an indirect expropriation, which will could cause stress and uncertainty about the future. Even though the government can claim that they have not taken away any property at this point, its actions have already affected the value for future transactions, causing undesired consequences. The concept of eminent domain gives the government power to act on behalf of public interest. Unfortunately, in many cases, the government violates property rights without offering a fair compensation. The legal issues involved in th ese matters are complex and the courts have not been entirely coherent in their approach. In conclusion, more than two centuries have passed since the proclamation of the American Constitution. However, the constitutional normative body continues to expand its application and renew its validity. The decisions dictated by the courts, offer a variety of interpretations, not always uniform but with an undeniably value. This academic paper offers a summary on how jurisprudence has constructed the concept of eminent domain regulation. According to the government these regulations have no other purpose than to protect citizens from its own government, while trying to draw clear boundaries to delineate its application. The concept of eminent domain goes beyond a simple theoretical construction, it is a true legal institution that articulates basic concepts of private law such as property and economic freedom, in addition to foundational principles of public law like the common good.

Stephen Jay Gould Nonmoral Nature Essay -- essays research papers fc

Evil in Nature and a Benevolent God   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The idea of the existence of evil in nature many times creates arguments between creationists and scientists concerning not only the design of nature by a creator –God, but the actual benevolence of God. In Stephen Jay Gould’s essay â€Å"Nonmoral Nature† (1984), he explores this highly controversial issue by posing the question: â€Å"If God is good and if creation reveals his goodness, why are we surrounded with pain, suffering, and apparently senseless cruelty in the animal world?† He uses the life span of the parasitic ichneumon wasp to illustrate a scientific view that the concept of evil is limited to human beings and that the world of nature is unconcerned with it. To some degree Gould may be correct in his assumption that nature is unconcerned with evil, however, a Christian view and scriptural model does provide strong argument as to how the fall of man influenced evil in nature, and how nature points directly to the benevolenc e of God.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Christian believes that God created the universe and its basic life forms. According to scripture, when God originally made life, He considered it â€Å"good† and perfect (Genesis 1:25). However, the Bible also shows that the perfect state God established on earth did not last long. Scripture recognizes the existence of evil and suffering in nature, and points the finger at God Himself as being responsible. Genesis chapter 3 reveals several curses God placed on the serpent, on Eve, and on nature. When Adam and Eve disobeyed their creator’s command not to eat from the tree of knowledge of good and evil, they rejected God and demonstrated they were no longer capable of living in their perfect world. They needed a place for their fallen weakened characters, and in Genesis 3:17-18, God revealed the kind of earth they would live in   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   from then on, â€Å"Cursed is the ground†¦in toil you shall eat of it all the days of your life†¦thorns and thistles it shall bring forth; and you shall eat the plants of the field.† After their fall, Adam and Eve live... ...;  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Works Cited Blackford, Russel. â€Å"Stephen Jay Gould on Science and Religion.† Quadrant Magazine 2000.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.users.bigpond.com/russellblackford/gould.htm Bohlin, Raymond G. and Kerby J. Anderson. â€Å"The Straw God of Stephen Gould† Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation 35.1 1983: 42-44. Gould, Stephen Jay. â€Å"Nonmoral Nature,† 1984. Hen’s Teeth and Horse’s Toes: Further Reflections in Natural History. New York: W.W. Norton, 1994. 32-44. Johns, Michael. â€Å"Science and Religion in the Fullness of Life.† Rev. of Rock of Ages, by Stephen Jay Gould. Emory Report 27 Sept. 1999: 52.6. Kirby,William. â€Å"On the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God.† The Bridgewater Treatisies. Treatise VII (1835) 2.2. The Ryrie Study Bible. New American Standard Translation. New York. New American Library, 1999. Wheeler, Gerald. â€Å"The Cruelty of Nature† Origins 2.1 1975: 32-41.

Internet Piracy: Theft of Intellectual Property Essay -- Copyright Vio

Piracy is a form of theft. Specifically, it refers to the unauthorized copying or use of intellectual property. Intellectual property is knowledge or expression that is owned by someone. There are three major types of intellectual property: 1) creative works, including music, written material, movies, and software, which are protected by copyright law; 2) inventions, which are protected by patent law; and 3) brand-name products, which are protected by trademarks. Many of the issues surrounding piracy have to do with the difference between intellectual property and physical property. A CD, for example, is a piece of physical property, but the songs on the CD are intellectual property. A customer in a record store can purchase a CD, but someone else still owns, or more precisely, has the copyright to the songs on the CD. Piracy is primarily a problem for the entertainment and software industries, and therefore piracy most often involves violations of copyright law. Copyright is a legal right that protects creative works from being reproduced, performed, or disseminated without permission of the copyright owner. Essentially, a copyright gives its owner the exclusive right to make copies of the material in question. Physical piracy-the copying and illegal sale of hard-copy CDs, videotapes, and DVDs-costs the music industry over $4 billion a year worldwide and the movie industry more than $3.5 billion. These numbers do not factor in the growing (and difficult to measure) problem of Internet piracy, in which music and movies are transferred to digital format and copies are made of the resulting computer file. Journalist Charles C. Mann explains why Internet piracy has the potential to be vastly more damaging to copyright industr... ...ple's physical property, there is clearly a social benefit from the wide dissemination of intellectual propertyÂâ€"i.e., ideas and their expressions. In Naughton's view, online file sharing does not qualify as "piracy" at all: We have to remind legislators that intellectual property rights are a socially-conferred privilege rather than an inalienable right, that copying is not always evil (and in some cases is actually socially beneficial) and that there is a huge difference between wholesale ‘piracy'Ââ€"the mass-production and sale of illegal copies of protected worksÂâ€"and the filesharing that most internet users go in for. Although online file sharing debuted in 1999, lawmakers and copyright industries are just beginning to address the myriad questions the practice has generated. In At Issue: Internet Piracy, authors attempt to answer some of those questions.

Decision Making and Consumer Essay

What major psychological processes influence consumer responses to the marketing program? * How do consumers make purchasing decisions? * In what ways do consumers stray from a deliberate rational decision process? Contents Introduction4 What influences Consumer behavior? 5 Cultural factors5 Social factors6 Personal factors7 Key psychological processes9 Motivation9 Perception10 Learning11 Emotion12 Memory12 The buying decision process14 Behavioral decision theory & behavioral economics20 Introduction The aim of marketing is to meet and satisfy target customers’ need and want better than competitors. Marketers must have a thorough understanding of how consumers think, feel, and act and offer clear value to each and every target consumer. Successful marketing requires that companies fully connect with their customers. Adopting a holistic marketing orientation means understanding customers-gaining a 360-degree view of both their daily lives and the changes that occur during their lifetimes so the right products are always marketed to the right customers in the right way. So we are going to explore individual consumer buying dynamism. Model of Consumer beha-vior Model of Consumer beha-vior Fig 1. 1 Fig 1. 1 The starting point for understanding consumer behavior is the stimulus-response model shown in figure 1. 1. Marketing and environmental stimuli enter the consumer’s consciousness, and a set of psychological processes combine with certain consumer characteristics to result in decision processes and purchase decisions. The marketer’s task is to understand what happens in the consumer’s consciousness between the arrival of the outside marketing stimuli and the ultimate purchase decisions. What influences Consumer behavior? Consumer behavior is the study of how individuals, groups and organizations select, buy, use and dispose of goods, services, idea or experiences to satisfy their needs and wants. A Consumer’s buying behavior is influenced by cultural, social, and personal factors. Cultural factors Culture is the fundamental determinant of a person’s wants ;amp; behavior. Each culture consists of smaller subcultures that provide more specific identification and socialization for their members. Subcultures include nationalities, religions, racial groups and geographic regions. Virtually all human societies exhibit social stratification, most often in the form of social classes, relatively homogeneous and enduring divisions in a society, hierarchically ordered and with members who share similar values, interest and behavior. Social Classes Upper uppers Upper uppers Lower uppers Lower uppers Upper middles Upper middles Middle Middle Working Working Upper lowers Upper lowers Lower lowers Lower lowers Social factors Such as Reference groups, Family and Social roles and statuses affect our buying behavior. Reference groups A person’s references groups are all the groups that have a direct or indirect influence on their behavior * Membership groups * Primary groups * Secondary groups * Aspirational groups * Dissociative groups Groups having a direct influence are called membership groups, some of these are Primary groups with whom the person interacts continuously and informally such as family, friends, neighbors and coworkers. People also belong to Secondary groups such as religious, professional and trade-union, which tend to be more formal and require less continuous interaction. People re also influenced by groups to which they don’t belong. Aspirational groups are those a person hops to join; Dissociative groups are those values or behavior an individual rejects. Marketers must determine how to reach and influence the group’s opinion leaders opinion leaders are often highly confident, socially active. Family There are two families in the buyer’s life: * Family of orienta tion consists of parents and siblings * Family of procreation the person’s spouse and children Rules and status Role consists of the activities a person is expected, each role in turn connotes a status Personal factors Personal characteristic that influence a buyer’s decision include * Age and stage Our taste of food, clothes and recreation is related to our age. Marketers should consider critical life events or transitions like marriage. * Occupation and Economic Circumstances Marketers try to identify the Occupational groups that have above-average interest in their product and services and even tailor product for certain Occupational groups. Both product and brand choices are affected by economic circumstance: 1. Spendable income (level, stability and time pattern) 2. Savings and assets (percentage that is liquid) 3. Debts 4. Borrowing power 5. Attitudes toward spending and saving * Personality and self-concept Personality set of distinguishing human psychological traits that lead to relatively consistent and enduring response to environmental stimuli (buying behavior). Like self-confidence, dominance, autonomy, deference, sociability, defensiveness and adaptability. Brand personality is a specific mix of human traits that we can attribute to a particular brand. 1. Sincerity 2. Excitement 3. Competence 4. Sophistication 5. Ruggedness * Life style and values Life style is a person’s pattern of living in the world as expressed in activities, interests and opinions. The ‘’ whole person ‘’ interacting with his/her environment. Life styles are shaped partly by whether consumers are money constrained (lower-cost product) or time constrained (multi-tasking). Consumer decisions are also influenced by core value the belief systems that underlie attitudes and behavior. Core values go much deeper than attitudes and behavior, people’s choices and desires over the long term. Key psychological processes Four key psychological process: Motivation, Perception, Learning, and Memory Motivation We all have many needs at any given time. Needs are: 1. Biogenic arise from physiological states of tension such as hunger. 2. Psychogenic arise from psychological states of tension such as the need of recognition. Three of the best-known theories of human motivation: Sigmund Freud, Abraham Maslow, and Frederick Herzberg. * Freud’s Theory Behavior is guided by subconscious motivations * Maslow’s Theory Behavior is driven by lowest, unmet need Fig 2. 1 Fig 2. 1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs * Herzberg’s Theory Behavior is guided by motivating and hygiene factors. It has two implications: 1. Sellers should do their best to avoid dissatisfiers. 2. The seller should identify the major satisfiers or motivators of purchase in the market and then supply them. Perception Perception is the process by which we select, organize and interpret information inputs to create a meaningful picture of the world. Perceptions are more important than reality because perceptions affect consumer’s actual behavior. People emerge with different perceptions of the same object because of three perceptual processes: * Selective attention Selective attention means that marketers must work hard to attract consumer’s notice * People are more likely to notice stimuli that relate to a current need * People are more likely to notice stimuli they anticipate * People are more likely to notice stimuli whose deviations are large in relationship to the normal size of the stimuli * Selective distortion Is the tendency to interpret information in a way that fits our preconceptions. Selective distortion can work to the advantages of marketers with strong brands when consumers distort neutral or ambiguous brand information to make it more positive. Selective retention We are likely to remember good points about a product we like and forget good points about competing products. It explains why marketers need to use repetition. * Subliminal perception Learning ((When we act we learn)) Learning induces changes in our behavior arising from experience. Learning theorists believe learning is produced through the interplay of drive s, stimuli, cues, responses ;amp; reinforcement. Drive is a strong internal stimulus impelling action. Cues are minor stimuli that determine when, where ;amp; how a person response. Discrimination means we have learned to recognize differences in sets of similar stimuli ;amp; can adjust our responses accordingly. Learning theory teaches marketers that they can build demand for a product by associating it with strong drives, using motivating cues ;amp; providing positive reinforcement. Hedonic bias occurs when people have a general tendency to attribute success to themselves ;amp; failure to external causes. Emotion Consumer response is not all cognitive ;amp; rational; much maybe emotional ;amp; invoke different kinds of feelings. A brand or product may make a consumer feel proud, excited, or confident. An ad may create feeling of amusement, disgust, or wonder. Memory * Short term memory (STM) a temporary ;amp; limited repository of information. * Long term memory (LTM) a more permanent, essentially unlimited repository. All the information ;amp; experiences we encounter as we go through life can end up in our long-term memory. Associative network memory model views LTM as a set of nodes ;amp; links. Nodes are stored information connected by links that vary in strength. A spreading process from node to node determine how much we retrieve ;amp; what information we can actually recall in any given situation. In this model, we can think of consumer brand knowledge as a node in memory with a variety of linked associations. The strength of these associations will be important determinant of the info we can recall about the brand. Brand association consist of all brand-related thoughts , feelings , perceptions , images, experiences , beliefs , attitudes ;amp; so on that become linked to the brand node. State farm mental map State farm mental map Fig 2. 2 Fig 2. 2 Memory process Memory is a very constructive process, because we don’t remember info ;amp; events completely ;amp; accurately. Memory encoding describes how ;amp; where info gets in the memory. The strength of the resulting association depends on how much we process the info at encoding ;amp; in what way. Memory retrieval is the way information gets out of memory. 1. The presence of other product info in memory can produce interference effects ;amp; cause us to either overlook or confuse new data. 2. The time between exposure to info ;amp; encoding has been shown generally to produce only gradual decay. 3. Info may be available in memory but not be accessible for recall without the proper retrieval cues or reminders. The buying decision process The five stage model of buying process: 1. Problem recognition 2. Information search 3. Evaluation of alternatives 4. Purchase decision 5. Post purchase behavior 1. Problem recognition The buying process starts when the buyer recognizes a problem or need triggered by internal or external stimuli. Marketers need to identify the circumstances that trigger a particular need by gathering information from a number of consumers. 2. Information search Information sources * Personal: family, friends†¦etc. * Commercial: ads, web sites †¦etc. * Public: mass media †¦. etc. Experiential: handling, examining†¦etc. Search dynamic by gathering information, the consumer learns about competing brands ;amp; their features. Successive Sets in Decision Making: 3. Evaluation of alternatives * Some basic concepts will help us understand consumer evaluation process: First, the consumer is trying to satisfy a need. Second, the consumer is looking for a certain benefits from the product solution. Third, the consumer sees each product as a bundle of attributes with varying abilities to deliver the benefits. Belief is a descriptive thought that a person holds about something. Attitudes a person’s enduring favorable or unfavorable evaluations, emotional feelings, ;amp; action tendencies toward some object or ideas. Attitudes put us into a frame of mind: liking or disliking an object, moving toward or away from it. Expectancy-value model The consumer arrives at attitudes toward various brands through an attribute evaluation procedure, developing a set of beliefs about where each brand stands on each attribute. The expectancy-value model of attitude formation posits that consumers evaluate products ;amp; services by combining their brand beliefs according to importance. . Purchase decision In executing a purchase intention the consumer may make up to 5 sub decisions: Brand, Dealer, Quantity, Timing, and payment method. It is a Step between Alternative Evaluation and Purchase. Non-Compensatory Models of Choice: Conjunctive heuristic: the consumer set a min acceptable cutoff level for each attribute ;amp; chooses the first alternative that meets the min standard for all attribute. Lexicographic heuristic: the consumer chooses the best brand on the basis of its perceived most important attribute. Elimination-by-aspects heuristic: the consumer compare brands on an attribute selected probabistically ;amp; eliminates brands that don’t meet min acceptable cutoffs. Intervening factors Steps purchase intention between and Purchas: Steps between Alternative Evaluation and Purchase Steps between Alternative Evaluation and Purchase Fig 3. 1 Fig 3. 1 Attitudes of others Depends on 2 things: 1. The intensity of the other person’s negative attitude toward our preferred alternative. 2. Our motivation to comply with the other person’s wishes. Unanticipated situational factors may erupt to change the purchase intention (Perceived Risk): 1. Functional risk: the product doesn’t perform to expectations. 2. Physical risk: the product poses a threat to physical well-being or health of the user or others 3. Financial risk: the product isn’t worth the price paid. 4. Social risk: the product results in embarrassment in front of others. 5. Psychological risk: the product affects the mental well-being of the other user. 6. Time risk: the failure of the product results in an opportunity cost of finding another satisfactory product. 5. Post purchase behavior Marketer must monitor post purchase satisfaction, actions, uses ;amp; disposal. Post purchase satisfaction Satisfaction is a function of closeness between expectations ;amp; the product’s perceived performance. If performance falls of expectations the consumer is disappointed; if it meets expectations the consumer is satisfied; if it exceeds expectations, the consumer is delighted. Post purchase actions Satisfied consumer is more likely to purchase the product again ;amp; will also tend to say good things about the brand to others. Dissatisfied consumer may abandon or return the product. Private actions include deciding to stop buying the product (exit option) or warning friends (voice option). Post purchase uses ;amp; disposal Marketers should also monitor how buyers use ;amp; dispose of the product. Fig 3. 2 Fig 3. 2 How buyers use ;amp; dispose of the product How buyers use ;amp; dispose of the product Moderating effects on consumer decision making The manner or path by which a consumer moves through the decision-making stages depends on several factors including the level of involvement ;amp; extent of variety seeking. * Low-Involvement Decision Making Petty ;amp; cacippo’s elaboration an influential model of attitude formation ;amp; change, describe how consumers make evaluation in both low ;amp; high involvement circumstances. Central route in which attitude or change stimulates much thought ;amp; is based on consumer’s diligent, rational consideration of the most important product information. Peripheral route in which attitude formation or change provokes much less thought ;amp; results from the consumer’s association of a brand with either positive or negative peripheral cues. Marketers use 4 techniques to try to covert low involvement product into one of higher involvement: 1. They can link the product to an engaging issue. 2. They can link the product to a personal situation. 3. They might design advertising to trigger strong emotions related to personal values. 4. They might add an important feature. * Variety-seeking buying behavior Here consumers often do a lot of brand switching. Brand switching occurs for the sake of variety rather than dissatisfaction. The market leader will try to encourage habitual buying behavior by dominating the self-space with a variety of related but different product versions, avoiding out-of-stock conditions, & sponsoring frequent reminder advertising. Behavioral decision theory & behavioral economics Behavioral decision theory (BDT) has identified many situations in which consumers make seemingly irrational choices. 1. Decision heuristics. 2. Framing. 3. Mental accounting. * Decision heuristics 1. Availability heuristic consumers base their predictions on the quickness & ease with which a particular example of an outcomes comes to mind. 2. Representative heuristic consumers base their predictions on how representative or similar the outcomes are to other examples.

Sex, Race, and Class Final Exam Study Guide

SYG 2013: SEX, RACE, AND CLASS STUDY GUIDE FOR FINAL EXAM TEST FORMAT: The test will contain 55 multiple-choice questions and one essay question. The entire test will be worth 125 points. For the exam you will need: #2 pencil, Scantron form 2052 (brownish-orangeish), and one additional sheet of paper. WHAT SHOULD YOU STUDY? : First, you should make sure that you have completed all of the assigned readings. Next, you should make sure you have a complete set of course notes and hard copies of the Power Point slides.Having a hardcopy of the PowerPoint slides will be especially useful for studying (statistical) information presented in the charts and graphs. I would recommend that you focus most heavily on the places where the material from the assigned readings and lecture material overlap. There will be some questions drawn from the assigned readings that were not discussed in class. For that reason, in order to score in the A or B range, it is absolutely essential that you review the assigned readings by utilizing the Reading and Discussion Qs. Please review these specific readings. There is at least one question from each on the exam.In other words, there is at least 12 points at stake. Page, Clarence Lamberth, John Harkness, Geoff Kimmel, Michael Larew, John If you don’t see one of the terms below in your notes, try to Google it to refresh your memory. I. KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS Socialization, â€Å"gender training†/gender bootcamp Media representation, media framing, media effects Media omnivores Macro-level, micro-level Prejudice Social distance (Bogardus) Confirmation bias Discrimination Audit study Racism Institutional racism (institutional discrimination) White privilege Colorism Index of dissimilarity II. KEY QUESTIONS Learning about Differences What kinds of lessons do children learn about gender while growing up? What kind of â€Å"gender training† do we receive from our parents? Please review this section of the class, paying atten tion to examples dealing with language, physical interaction, and toys/clothing/books, etc. What are the consequences of these kinds of interaction? [These Qs apply both to the essay and multiple-choice Qs]  ·What kinds of gender lessons are learned in school? Especially, what differences did Sadker and Sadker uncover in their studies of gender in elementary school—especially in terms of how teachers interact with male and female students?What are the differences in interaction, and what are their consequences?  ·What are some of the differences in the way that working- and middle-class families socialize their children? In particular, recall examples dealing with differences in the use of language and social interaction across social classes, as discussed by Annette Lareau and Hart & Risley. Portraying Differences in Language and Media  ·What can we learn about language differences between men and women from the research of Deborah Tannen? Who talks more? How do they u se talk for different purposes? In general, how much television/media do Americans take in each day? How do these patterns vary by race, gender, age, etc.?  ·What are studies of media representation? What do we learn from these studies?  ·What are studies of media framing? What do we learn from these studies?  ·What are studies of media effects and â€Å"cultivation analysis† (George Gerbner)? What do we learn from these studies, in terms of the impact of media exposure on issues related to sex/gender, race, and social class? Prejudice and Discrimination: Race and Ethnicity  ·What are: prejudice and discrimination?What is racism and how is it different from discrimination?  ·How is prejudice defined in the Bogardus’s social distance scale? What do we learn from this measure in terms of how prejudice has changed over time?  ·Looking at public opinion polls and surveys, to what extent do Americans think that racism and racial tensions are still a problem in s ociety? How do these opinions differ across racial lines?  ·What do we learn from the results of recent studies on discrimination in housing, employment, car buying, and â€Å"driving while black† (by Massey, Pager, Lamberth, Bertrand and Mullainathan, and others)?In other words, to what extent do find that discrimination is occurring?  ·What is â€Å"white privilege†? According to Peggy McIntosh, how does white privilege contribute to racial inequality?  ·What is â€Å"institutional racism†? How is it different from â€Å"discrimination†? What are some examples of institutional racism (the G. I. Bill, funding for education)?  ·If racial inequalities are to be reduced, how do the (a) micro- (Michael Scott) and (b) macro-level perspectives suggest different kinds of solutions?  ·The legal system sometimes gets involved in cases of discrimination.Please be aware of cases against Hooters, Abercrombie, etc. Further, on what grounds are organizations like the Augusta National Golf Club able to exclude women as members?  ·Who is the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)? What is their job? How many cases/what kinds of cases do they review?  ·To what extent is there evidence that white people are sometimes the victims of racial discrimination (â€Å"reverse discrimination†)? Please be aware of the findings of the EEOC on this matter, as well as the outcome of the Supreme Court case of Ricci v. DeStefano.Prejudice and Discrimination: Sexual Orientation  ·Thinking about public opinion in the U. S. , to what extent do people currently support same-sex marriage rights among gays and lesbians? How do public attitudes differ by age? How do their views on â€Å"gay marriage† compare to their views on â€Å"civil unions†? [Check out the graphs and tables]  ·In how many states/which states do gays and lesbians have the right to marry?  ·In the various court cases, on what basis have gays and lesbian s (and their supporters) argued that they should have the legal right to marry? In the United States, both court judges and ordinary citizens play a role in shaping policies surrounding same-sex marriage. What are some of the key differences in the decisions and decision-making process of these two groups on the issue of same-sex marriage? Prejudice and Discrimination: Disabilities Studies  ·What is the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)? When was it signed into law? What does it cover (employment, public accommodations)?  ·What are cochlear implants? In what ways is this medical technology controversial within the deaf community? Prejudice and Discrimination: Gender How large is the â€Å"gender gap in pay†?  ·Looking at the graphs presented in class, how/why will the gender gap in pay change in the next couple of decades?  ·Why does the gender gap in pay exist? What are some of the individual, or micro-level reasons for the gap? What are some of the structural, o r macro-level reasons for the gap? [We didn’t talk about the macro-level very much in class, but as long as you understand what the macro-level perspective is, you should be able to develop a basic answer to this Q]  ·Continuing to think about the micro- and macro-levels, what are some of the â€Å"solutions† to the gender gap in pay?Possible Essay Questions: 1)Audit studies: What are audit studies? Define in general. What techniques were used in the audit studies discussed in class? Strengths; weaknesses; suggestions for improvements. 2)Gender bootcamp. First, what is it, in general, and how does it compare to military bootcamp? Looking at the subcomponents of gender bootcamp, what are the key features (steps, procedures, etc. )? Bring in as many examples from class as possible, especially focusing on primary socialization at home. Read also: Our Changing Society

History Technology 20th Century Essay

The role of technology played a huge part in developing our way of life today as we exist. The technology field developed quickly in the span of the 20th century. We had communication technology, transportation technology and the technology that contributed to the advancement of modern science. These all contributed to a better way of living and enhancing our quality of life throughout the 20th century and it continues today. Communications technology played an important part in our evolving culture in the 20th century. Radio, radar, and early sound recording were key technologies that paved the way for the development of the telephone, fax machine and the storage of data. The way we communicate with others is a great tool for our society to evolve and communicate with one another. This helped with the way we developed our relationships with our countries as well by providing a quick way to speak to someone or find someone that is a half way around the world. This technology also helped our economy by providing an important avenue for the way we can do business. We can hold conference calls with multiple parties that were not thought of before. The personal computer was developed in the 1980’s as well as cell phones. The public use Internet was introduced in the 1990’s. With these technologies it gave businesses a chance to enhance productivity and increase our economy and provide us a better quality of life. Transportation technology had a significant impact on our quality of life and the way we become mobile. The combination of the ability to travel by air and automobile allowed people to have unprecedented personal mobility that they did not have before. One of the most notable technologies in the area of transportation came with the space race between the United States and the Soviet Union. This gave a peaceful outlet for political and military tensions of the Cold War. This lead to the first human spaceflight with the Soviet Union’s mission in 1961 and man’s first landing on the moon in 1969. The first space station was launched by the Soviet space program. The United States developed the first reusable spacecraft system with the Space Shuttle program. It was first launched in 1981. The technology that lead to the evolution of the space program for human space travel also allowed for orbiting space probes that have been developed to work with our communication technologies to not only protect us but provide further exploration in the future. The advancement of medicine has allowed us to live longer more productive lives. Antibiotics was developed that drastically reduced mortality from bacterial diseases. Vaccines were developed to protect us from epidemics that caused death. X-rays became a powerful tool to diagnose diseases and broken bones. Imaging was developed to help doctors find better ways to treat individuals. All of the medical advancements from the 20th century have provided our morality to increase not only in adults but young people who did not have the chance at life as they do today. Vietnam War Outcome/Results The war that I choose to discuss is the Vietnam War. This war was a prolonged struggle between nationalist’s forces that were attempting to unify the country of Vietnam under a communist government. The United States was trying to prevent the spread of communism. Many people viewed this war as a no win war. The United States leaders had lost the American public’s support for the war. What many people did not realize is that there had been fighting in Vietnam long before the Vietnam War began. The Vietnamese people had suffered under French colonial rule for over six decades. Japan had invaded many parts of Vietnam which brought the Vietnamese leader Ho Chi Minh back to his country after traveling around the world. He established the Viet Minh. Their goal was to get rid of the French and Japanese people that occupied their land. The French were not willing to give up their colony and fought back. Ho Chi Minh had tried for years to get the United States to support him against the French. He even supplied the United States with military intelligence about the Japanese during World War II. The United States decided to help the French for fear that the country would become a communist country. Viet Cong was established by communist sympathizers in South Vietnam to use guerilla warfare against the South Vietnamese. The United States sent advisors to South Vietnam but the North Vietnamese fired directly upon two U. S. Ships in international waters. This resulted in a resolution that the Congress issued that gave the President authority to escalate the United States involvement in Vietnam. The President’s goal was not for the United States to win but to bolster South Vietnam’s defenses until South Vietnam could take over. Because the United States entered into this war without a goal, President Johnson set the stage for the public and troop disappointment when the United States was in a stalemate with the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong. The U. S. troops fought the war in the jungle where the Viet Cong were very well supplied and set booby traps for the U. S. troops. This became a difficult war to fight for the Americans. The U.S. troops became frustrated at the conditions they were forced to be in that many became angry and some used drugs to cope. The surprise attack that the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong organized against the South Vietnamese cities and towns was the turning point. This proved to the Americans that the enemy was stronger and organized better than they thought. As news spread to the U. S., the American public was unhappy so the President decided that he would not escalate the war any longer. Newly appointed President Nixon wanted nothing more than to end the war. He began the process of withdrawing troops in 1969 and expanded the war to other countries. This move created protests throughout America. The President worked toward a peaceful solution and peace talks began. The cease fire did not happen until 1973 and the last U. S. troops left Vietnam in March 1973. Even though the United States had withdrawn it’s troops, the fighting continued in Vietnam. Finally, South Vietnam officially surrendered to North Vietnam on April 30, 1975. The United States was trying to prevent the spread of communism when ultimately; Vietnam was reunited as a communist country in 1976. This was a war the United States should have never been involved in but the government thought otherwise. [Insert Paper Title Here] [Insert introductory text here] Paper should be printed on 8.5 X 11 inch white paper. Entire paper should be double-spaced. The paper should be clean. The printer should produce letters that are dark enough and clear enough to be easily read. Margins should be 1 inch at the top, bottom, left, and right of every page. Do not justify the right margin, instead leave it ragged by using left justify. Use Times Roman using font size of 12. Type no more than 27 lines of text on each page (not counting the header at the top of the page). References

Effects of Alcoholic Drinks to College Students Essay

Although alcohol may give you a feeling of elation and aroused senses due to a lessening of inhibitions during the early stages of alcohol intoxication, alcohol is a depressant. It depresses the central nervous system—leading to slowed reactions, slurred speech, and ultimately, to unconsciousness. Alcohol progressively affects different brain areas. Alcohol first affects the part of the brain that controls inhibitions. When people lose their inhibitions, they may talk more, get rowdy, and do foolish things. After several drinks, they may feel â€Å"high,† but really, their nervous system is slowing down. Alcohol acts fast because it is not digested like food. Instead, it moves directly into the bloodstream from the stomach and small intestine. It takes a long time for alcohol’s effects to wear off—as it takes approximately one hour for the liver to process the alcohol in one drink. ALCOHOL’S DAMAGING EFFECTS ON THE BRAIN Difficulty walking, blurred vision, slurred speech, slowed reaction times, impaired memory: Clearly, alcohol affects the brain. Some of these impairments are detectable after only one or two drinks and quickly resolve when drinking stops. On the other hand, a person who drinks heavily over a long period of time may have brain deficits that persist well after he or she achieves sobriety. Exactly how alcohol affects the brain and the likelihood of reversing the impact of heavy drinking on the brain remain hot topics in alcohol research today. We do know that heavy drinking may have extensive and far–reaching effects on the brain, ranging from simple â€Å"slips† in memory to permanent and debilitating conditions that require lifetime custodial care. And even moderate drinking leads to short–term impairment, as shown by extensive research on the impact of drinking on driving. A number of factors influence how and to what extent alcohol affects the brain (1), including * how much and how often a person drinks; * the age at which he or she first began drinking, and how long he or she has been drinking; * the person’s age, level of education, gender, genetic background, and family history of alcoholism; * whether he or she is at risk as a result of prenatal alcohol exposure; and * his or her general health status. BLACKOUTS AND MEMORY LAPSES Alcohol can produce detectable impairments in memory after only a few drinks and, as the amount of alcohol increases, so does the degree of impairment. Large quantities of alcohol, especially when consumed quickly and on an empty stomach, can produce a blackout, or an interval of time for which the intoxicated person cannot recall key details of events, or even entire events. Blackouts are much more common among social drinkers than previously assumed and should be viewed as a potential consequence of acute intoxication regardless of age or whether the drinker is clinically dependent on alcohol (2). White and colleagues (3) surveyed 772 college undergraduates about their experiences with blackouts and asked, â€Å"Have you ever awoken after a night of drinking not able to remember things that you did or places that you went? † Of the students who had ever consumed alcohol, 51 percent reported blacking out at some point in their lives, and 40 percent reported experiencing a blackout in the year before the survey. Of those who reported drinking in the 2 weeks before the survey, 9. 4 percent said they blacked out during that time. The students reported learning later that they had participated in a wide range of potentially dangerous events they could not remember, including vandalism, unprotected sex, and driving. Binge Drinking and Blackouts| †¢ Drinkers who experience blackouts typically drink too much and too quickly, which causes their blood alcohol levels to rise very rapidly. College students may be at particular risk for experiencing a blackout, as an alarming number of college students engage in binge drinking. Binge drinking, for a typical adult, is defined as consuming five or more drinks in about 2 hours for men, or four or more drinks for women. | ARE WOMEN MORE VULNERABLE TO ALCOHOL’S EFFECTS ON THE BRAIN? Women are more vulnerable than men to many of the medical consequences of alcohol use. For example, alcoholic women develop cirrhosis (5), alcohol–induced damage of the heart muscle (i. e. , cardiomyopathy) (6), and nerve damage (i. e. , peripheral neuropathy) (7) after fewer years of heavy drinking than do alcoholic men. Studies comparing men and women’s sensitivity to alcohol–induced brain damage, however, have not been as conclusive. Using imaging with computerized tomography, two studies (8,9) compared brain shrinkage, a common indicator of brain damage, in alcoholic men and women and reported that male and female alcoholics both showed significantly greater brain shrinkage than control subjects. Studies also showed that both men and women have similar learning and memory problems as a result of heavy drinking (10). The difference is that alcoholic women reported that they had been drinking excessively for only about half as long as the alcoholic men in these studies. This indicates that women’s brains, like their other organs, are more vulnerable to alcohol–induced damage than men’s (11). SUMMARY Alcoholics are not all alike. They experience different degrees of impairment, and the disease has different origins for different people. Consequently, researchers have not found conclusive evidence that any one variable is solely responsible for the brain deficits found in alcoholics. Characterizing what makes some alcoholics vulnerable to brain damage whereas others are not remains the subject of active research (34). The good news is that most alcoholics with cognitive impairment show at least some improvement in brain structure and functioning within a year of abstinence, though some people take much longer (35–37). Clinicians must consider a variety of treatment methods to help people stop drinking and to recover from alcohol–related brain impairments, and tailor these treatments to the individual patient. Advanced technology will have an important role in developing these therapies. Clinicians can use brain–imaging techniques to monitor the course and success of treatment, because imaging can reveal structural, functional, and biochemical changes in living patients over time. Promising new medications also are in the early stages of development, as researchers strive to design therapies that can help prevent alcohol’s harmful effects and promote the growth of new brain cells to take the place of those that have been damaged by alcohol.  ¦ As well as damaging their health, university students who drink too much alcohol may also be damaging their academic performance. Alcohol: The Benefits of Moderate Drinking Drinking alcohol in moderate amounts can have positive influences on physical and mental health. While alcohol is one of the most widely abused substances on the market, it is also one that features certain benefits for drinkers who consume it in safe amounts. For individuals who consume low levels of alcohol, benefits like reduced stress, increased cardiovascular health and decreased risk of developing type 2 diabetes offer a wealth of reasons for consumers to drink in moderation. Reduce Stress, Anxiety and Tension. Research shows that the consumption of alcohol in moderate amounts can lead to certain psychological benefits. Low levels of alcohol can trigger stress reduction, easy feelings of anxiety and help consumers to reduce tension. In addition, low levels of alcohol consumption can also cause the consumer to feel more pleasant and relaxed. Studies on sleep show that people who drink in moderation get more sleep on average than do those who indulge in excess. These psychological effects of moderate drinking are positive ones that can be beneficial to the consumer. A Longer Life The positive psychological effects of drinking in moderation can be associated with the studies that show moderate drinkers tend to love longer than people who don’t drink at all or those who drink in excess. Studies from a number of different countries including China, the United States and England indicate that longevity is highest among groups of people who drink alcohol in moderation. Increased Cardiovascular Health Several studies have shown that drinking alcohol in moderation has a positive correlation with certain aspects of cardiovascular health. In particular, the risk of developing coronary artery disease is significantly lowered in conjunction with moderate consumption of alcohol. Another link between alcohol and cardiovascular health shows that moderate consumption of alcohol has a positive correlation with survivability in the event of a heart attack. Those who drink low levels of alcohol are more likely to live and less likely to experience another heart attack. Alcohol produces several positive effects on the body when consumed in low levels. For example, it increases levels of good cholesterol (HDL) and lowers levels of bad cholesterol (LDL). Alcohol also acts as a blood thinner once it enters the human body, much like common aspirin does. Thus, when consumed in moderation, it can reduce the likelihood of developing blood clots in arteries. Decreased Risk for Type 2 Diabetes While consuming alcohol in large quantities has been proven to put drinkers at a higher risk for developing type 2 diabetes, some studies show that drinking in moderation might have the opposite effect. The relationship between alcohol and type 2 diabetes is the focus of a great number of ongoing studies. Findings show, however, that moderate drinkers are less likely to develop type 2 diabetes than heavy drinkers. All of these health benefits associated with moderate drinking serve as an incentive for consumers to limit their levels of alcohol intake. Too much alcohol eliminates the health benefits described above. The best way to maximize on the health benefits of alcohol is to consume it in low levels. Negative Effects of Drinking Alcohol on Physical Fitness While occasional alcohol use may not have a major impact on physical activity, there is a clear link between sports, exercise and drinking alcohol. In fact, alcohol is the most widely used drug by athletes which is why alcohol related difficulties seem to be more common among those who exercise regularly. It is clear that drinking in excess can negatively influence exercise. Studies done to determine the influence that alcohol has on exercise Studies have shown that consuming alcohol has the following influence on exercise: *Diminishes the use of amino acids and glucose by the muscles of the skeleton *A detrimental influence on the supply of energy *An impairment in metabolism while exercising In addition, persuasive evidence implies that continual use of alcohol is connected with unfavorable effects on systems of the body and organs, including the liver, brain, heart and blood vessels. Exercising while under the influence of alcohol Drinking alcohol has a negative influence on motor skills, stamina and aerobic ability. Alcohol has the following effects on motor skills: *Delayed reaction time *A decrease in hand-eye coordination *Less precision and balance Alcohol has the following effects on strength training and short term athletic functioning: *A decline in athletic performance as a whole. *Decreased times in cycling and running *Weakened pumping power of the heart *Impaired temperature control while exercising *Weakening of grip strength *Decreased jump altitude *Lower 200 and 400-meter running performance *Becoming tired more quickly while participating in high-intensity workouts Alcohol has the following effects on aerobic performance: *Dehydration *Considerably diminished aerobic performance *Hindered 800 and 1500-meter running speeds *An increase in health risks after working out in hot atmospheres for an extended amount of time Working out with a hangover. A hangover is caused by a number of factors including, dehydration and toxicity from the alcohol. The symptoms include a gloomy mood and headache. Unfortunately, these side effects can cause a decline in athletic performance. Working out with a hangover has been shown to considerably decrease aerobic adequacy by as great as 11 percent. Long term effects that alcohol has on exercise performance Long term, heavy (more than two drinks each day) alcohol use can impair exercise in the following ways: *Hindering the cardiovascular reaction to exercise *Cause nutritional deficits from changes in nutrient consumption, digestion and metabolism. *Cause muscle injury, wasting and feebleness in several muscles, including the heart. *Changing the body’s hormonal atmosphere It is also important to note that women might be more susceptible to the toxic results of alcohol on the heart. It is clear that drinking in excess can negatively influence exercise. Alcoholism is a growing problem in the United States and is even a problem in teenagers, too. Unfortunately, there are a variety of negative effects that are associated with the consumption of alcohol. While the negative effects can either be long term or short term, all of them start with the first drink of alcohol. Negative effects may not become apparent immediately, but as time goes on, the adverse effects of alcohol will become more and more noticeable and, in some cases, they can even lead to death. Diseases One of the negative effects that alcohol tends to have is the increased risk for multiple serious diseases. Increased consumption of alcohol can lead to serious medical problems such as cirrhosis of the liver, which often results in death. Infections, sleeping disorders and sexual dysfunctions can also be caused by consumption of alcohol. Recent studies have also shown that consumption of alcohol can actually raise the risk of certain cancers, including breast cancer, throat cancer and intestinal cancer. Consuming alcohol can be very serious and there are many grave negative effects that are caused by alcohol. Avoiding alcohol can help you avoid these adverse effects and perhaps even save your life.